Development of a system is often caused by problems that often appear as the performance of the system is less good. For matters like this are usually top management to request assistance analais a system to conduct investigations on their system for the crab from the system they have and determine solutions. Of recommendations given by the system analyst, the top management can decide whether to develop a system that already exists or create a new system better than the previous system.
System Concept Investigation
Problem is gap between the goal system and the actual system conditions, with the understanding why other systems failed to achieve the goals that the system has been determined previously. To know the things that have been what caused the failure of the system, the analyst should conduct an investigation before taking action to improve the system. With the investigation, an analyst will better understand the problem and the system flow more depth, even detect the problem is known but the problem still describe the size of the course.
Many reports in the detection problem may not actually be real or can not be solved. This may be because:
a. Goals that are too difficult or ideal so that might not be reached.
b. The system can not be developed because of lack of resources, attitudes, or both.
c. Measurement system that is not accurate.
d. Statement of purpose of the system that is behind (statement of goals is dated).
e. Gap between the ideal system and the system at this time is temporary (the gap between the ideal and the current system is temporary and will decrease given patience).
In solving the problem, should provide an explanation of:
a. The formulating condition of the system that runs through the investigation in detail.
b. Getting a consensus that the ideal system.
c. Develop several alternatives to reduce the difference (gap) between the ideal system with which system is running
d. Selecting the best alternative and sell it to management.
Task start point b to d akan take a very long time including the necessary costs. The objective of the investigation is to stabilize or show the actual problem occurred while analysts as a way to understand the system in depth.
Constraints in the system of investigation
In conducting investigations, there are several barriers or obstacles that will occur, among other issues:
a. Time (time)
Analysts lack of resources (resource) time, so just do some investigative activities. Often top management is only giving a little time to conduct investigations on their system as soon as possible to get results.
b. Cost
Often the costs incurred related to the length of time for activities investigas, so
that management will give the limits of cost. The more time you are treated to make
the investigation so the larger the cost of which must be issued.
c. Science
Manager information systems tend Yunior told analysts that do not yet have
the technical expertise or knowledge is sufficient, so that will impact on the results of
investigations that are less deep, or more mature.
d. Politics
Management or the parties may distribute certain issues which aim to restrict
the investigation activities.
e. Interference.
There are parties who try to intervene or manage investigas in activities
that will disrupt or cause a disruption and the results obtained in accordance with
reality is less available.
Recommendations
Results of the investigation is a recommendation, which is one of them is as follows:
a. Does not take any action because it found no problems. This can happen as they may in the preliminary report, the problem contrived so that at the time of the investigation is done-the problem does not happen or was not found.
b. Perform system maintenance for problems that small. Maintenance of the system that made every day (short period) will help minimize the problems that appear in so fast and to always be better controlled.
c. Increasing the ability or skills in the run or use the information system.
d. Consider modifications to the system in total, so the need to replace it with the thought that the new system.
e. Place going into the development plan system is immediately done.
Investigative tactics
Investigation tactics
a. Listen, do not lecture.
If you know all the answers, you certainly will not conduct investigations. So that in the investigation should provide enough time for the management or the user to explain in clear and complete, and system analysts do not dominate discussion
b. Do not provide solutions to the initial problem This means do not try showing ideas to solve the problem, before the investigation is completed all the activities carried out, so avoid solutions that part by part.
c. Comparing the story (compare stories).
Different people mean different views of the same problem,
so the need to involve the supervisor and subordinate in the view of the problem clearly and can be trusted. Should not hear from the source 1 so that there is only 1 view. When the user has a difference of views, should find differences and then seek the views that have similarities.
d. Note the reluctance responses (look for reluctant responses).
Reluctance to give responses that indicate something is hidden. Too many problems system also causes confusion, so not able to explain in full.
e. Note the logical inconsistency problems (probe for logical inconsistencies).
Inconsistency is the logical termination of the data flow where data is
missing, or suddenly appear certain data. Some of the things that dealing with this issue:
There are the input of data but no output (black hole).
*There is the output, but no input (miracles).
f. Notice the impact you (observe your effect).
Given the differences of when you attend and when you do not present. Rating referred directly to the internal probe. While external probe is the assessment made by anyone without known (searching external materials), such as by analyzing the report, history the problems of thectools, and sources of other secondary investigation.
g. Require hard work, giving rise to boredom (expect hard, boring work).Be a detective professionals and patient in dealing with problems in phases. And the system is sustainable.
h. Avoid problems politk (avoid politics).
Mission analyst system is not the judge the facts (your mission is the fact,
not judgment).
Investigation techniques
Investigation techniques included :
a. Directly (direct (internal) probes)
Namely to find out directly what is happening in the user environment
They allow you to paying attention to it directly without
through certain parties (interpreter). Internal probes are source of chaos (disruptive), the differences arise because of attitude. Internal
probes used as richer and the justifier of the group facts that occurred (truer group
of facts). There are three techniques for conduct the investigation directly, with:
1. The questionnaire (questionnaires).
This technique is very appropriate, if in the investigation have constraints
time and cost. Although to get it through the form of responde
field. The matters in the questionnaire condition explanations akan akan
different if carried out directly in the face (face to face interview).
This is the best of the questionnaire as a document that can show
differences that occurred in the respondents
2. Frequently asked questions (interview).
These activities require time and special expertise. Not all people able to interview successfully. Interview can be used for the sequence in depth in addition to more flexible
accordance with field conditions. Obstacles faced and the time is
special expertise.
3. Observation.
It is a strong internal probe (a powerful internal probe).
Sit together with the system by making observations with the
question is more specific. Why you do this activity?
or where this document will be moved?. Each question may
be can demonstrate problem solving mysterious
b. Indirect (indirect (external) probes)
Activities that can be done quickly and not visible from
operational personnel, so that they can know the outside or something
hidden from the user community. This activity will dominate
activities at the beginning of the SDLC, the internal probe to deepen.
1. Flow of the procedure (procedure flow).
Operational procedures is the means (vehicles) for new employees
understand their work and experience to handle employee problems.
If the procedure does not flow properly, the system information can not be
also operated correctly. Use the system flowchart for
the path information as an explanation operating procedures.
If there is any problem diprosedur, the problem is probably will
arise in the actual operations.
2. Reviewing documents (document review).
Is to find and collect the documents necessary (critical document). If problems occur in many customer orders, collected from the original source document customer orders that used as its data-entry, interactive screen format, detail
transactions, and summary reports that the error occurred. Documents often caused problems.
3. Sampling.
Maybe you need information from the billing vendor that has been
provide discounts at the time of payment, because the company lost
money when the discount is not given when the delay of payment.
You can involve the customer to get the payer
information (although there are many transactions). Finally you can make
list of sample data with the random selection for the last one week,
select the 20 pages of daily transactions, select 5 items from each
page are selected., record the information for each item and 5
calculate the average-Ra and variants to the sample-sample of all transactions
payment occurs.
4. Tabular (Tabular tools)
Also called the matrix, the check list to find disputes in the transaction flow as follows:
System description
Determine system performance at this time will have difficulty when
company does not have a standard performance measurement system.
Unfortunately, companies tend not to update documentation systems that are running. Therefore, to improve the document analyst system for investigating the problem.
Description of the system include a clear explanation at this time:
a.Inputs
b.Outputs
c.Files
d.Data elements
e. Volume of transactions and documents action
f. Data flow diagrams
NEEDS ANALYSIS
In doing this step will be achieved 4 goals, namely:
a. Describe the system at this time in full.
b. Describes the ideal information system.
c. Bringing information system to the ideal conditions at this time with
attention to resource constraints.
d. Giving impetus to the confidence of this team into the development
system
. Requirement analysis phase is the intensive interaction between the analyst
system with the community system (end-user), where the development team
system shows the expertise to get the responses and confidence the user, so get a good participation. Is working hard to get agreement user skeptical about their needs from an information system, as they may the failure of the previous information system.
The desire Requirement in the first stage of the system is doing a survey of
the desire and the ideal information system. Here is an ideal concept than a reality, meaning that no the ideal system (no system is perfect information) but are subjective. If this is not explained in depth can rise to differences of views will be disappointing or end-user. Method needs analysis.
Keep the selection method of collecting data for the right to do
requirement system. Methods are interviews, questionnaires, observation, analysis procedure, and document the survey.Each method will be described in depth as follows:
Frequently asked questions (Interviews)
1. How do the methods used.
· Elections potential interviewees.
· Make arrangements to potential interviewees.
· Setting up the structure of a complete and clear.
· Choosing the person personally and diinterview recorded.
2. Target of the method.
· private key in the process of DFD.
· Sometimes involve outsiders, such as customers or vendors.
3. Benefits of the method.
· interviewer can measure the response through the questions and to adjust them according to the situation that occurred.
· Good for the problems that are not structured, such as why you think this could happen?.
Demonstrating the effect of interviewer time.
· create a high response since the preparation meeting.
4. Loss method.
· Requires time and cost is not small.
· Requires special training and experience of the interviewer.
· It is difficult to compare the interview reports as natural subjectivity.
5. When both methods are used.
· Obtain or view a description of key personnel.
· Test the credibility of the interviewees.
· Search for the interview unsureness or contradictions.stabilizing credibility team. Some important factors in both the interview, namely objektives,
audience, format, weighting and combining responses, and docummentation.
Questionnaires
1. How do the methods used.
· Design using standard questionnaires.
· The questionnaire sent to a work environment end-users.
· Structure of the response statistics summarized in the distribution.
2. Target of the method.
· All end-user with their knowledge will be involved in the process of solution
splitting system.
· End-user associated with the use of symbols in a DFD.
3. Benefits of the method.
· Cheap and fast from the interviews.
· Not require a trained investigator (only one expert who needed to design a questionnaire for the end-user selected.
· Easy to mensintesis results since the making of the questionnaire.
· With easy-to minimize the cost for all end-user.
4. Loss method.
· Unable to make a specific question for the end-user.
· Analyst does not involve an impression so that can reveal personal end-user.
· response to a low not because there is a strong encouragement for return the questionnaire.
· Unable to adjust the question to end-user specific.
5. When both methods are used.
· simple question, and have no meaning fork.
· Requires a broad perspective of the end-user.
· If you have less time and cost.
Observation
1. How do the methods used.
· Personally visit the location of one analyst observed.
· Analysts recording events in the location of the observation, and including volumen processing, spreadsheets.
2. Target of the method.
· geographic location of the process shown in the DFD (Data Flow Diagram)
3. Benefits of the method.
· Get the facts from the records of opinion.
· Not require construction of a question.
· Do not disrupt or hide something (end-users do not know
that they are observed).
· Analyst does not rely on oral explanations from the end-users.
4. Loss Method
· If visible, analysts may change the operation (end-user was observed).
· In the long term, the fact that in one observation may be not appropriate (representative) in daily or weekly.
· Requires experience and special kehlian analyst.
5. When both methods are used.
Require a quantitative description, such as time, volume and so forth. the suspicion that the end-user to the actual occurrence of a does not occur (contrived).
Tip in the practical observations:
a. Do not be observed in a long time.
There are two reasons, namely: with a long time will disturb the operation
which is being observed, and will deflect the real problems.
b. Create a brief note.
c. Before observations, please let the supervisor and the involved
about what will be done and why, so it will reduce interference.
d. Use a short checklist of the required information together
e. Do not make observations without a plan
Procedure Analysis
1. How do the methods used.
• The operating procedures can identify and learn document the flow of key information through the system, with data flow diagram (DFD).
• Each flow key document describes the procedures operating system.
• Through observation, learn the facts of the analyst describe your volume of distribution (high, low, medium) and what the next to be a copy of the original document.
2. Target of the method.
• Documents in the main DFD (Data Flow Diagram)
• The process in the DFD.
3. Benefits of the method.
• Evaluation procedures can be done with the intervention (interferences) is minimal and does not affect the operation.
• Procedures can flow into a structure checklist for make observations.
4. Loss method.
• procedures may not be complete and not up to date again.
• Learning the flow chart document takes time and expertise analyst.
5. When both methods are used.
• decide whether the failure of the system can help design good.
• The analyst is not completely familiar with the document flow.
• describe your document that disrupt the flow of work function.
Observations document (Document Survey)
1. How do the methods used.
• Identifying the main documents and reports (physical data flow diagram).
• Collect copies of actual documents and reports.
• Any documents or reports, is used to record data, including field (the size and type), frequency of use and coding structure.
2. Target of the method.
• Flow data key shown in the data flow diagram (DFD).
3. Benefits of the method.
• Minimize interruptions of operations functions.
• The beginning of the data element dictionary.
• Often, you can consider the major procedural modification.
4. Loss method.
• Requires enough time (there is a business organization in the swamped with documents and reports).
5. When both methods are used.
• Must be done if a system will be designed (for activities analysis, clarity in the new system design and analysis documents can help to determine the next task of the design).
Sampling
Sampling can help reduce the time and cost. Need for accuracy select a sample of the population, so the statistics that require expertise not experience a failure or threat.
Resource constraints
a. Time
Changes a system must be expressed in the framework since decreasing function of the system quickly. Time constraints can be influence the analyst to consider the technology innovation that is not may be operated in a short time. Therefore, the need to need enough time to have a leeway of time so that can create the most good alternative.
b. Money
The ideal information system will require that the cost of expensive, so requires adequate funding. This will occur due to competition with our competitors where they embed investment in a large information system.
c. Expertise.
Staff information system may not have knowledge or experience a significant problem, such as telecommunications, database integration, and interactive setting. Companies can to take a contract with consultant to increase design capabilities. This will hope constraint costs incurred for energy consultants.
d. Technology.
Technology needs may become the main problem in supporting working system so the need to pay attention to the development of technology continues again, the consequences of going in cost and not until the technology used behind the competitors.
e. Ekternal factors.
Many of the constraints that come from outside of the design settings, such as prevention use exotic technologies, to prevent keep local data in a central database system, and so forth.
Needs analysis document
1. Referral (conduct) analysis.
• Relationships with end users.
• Analyze records, forms and reports.
• Observation process.
• Analyze methods used.
• Problems in collecting data.
2. Needs of the user.
• What are the actual needs.
• reporting requirements (type and frequency).
• Needs training.
• The influence of the new system.
3. Constraint system.
• Explain the constraints of time, cost, expertise, technology and factor ekternal.
• realistic system.
4. Documentation.
• Intrumen data collection (needs questionnaire, interview).
• Consensus statistics.
• Flow of data in logical and phisik.
• Element data early in the dictionary.
GENERATINGSYTEMS ALTERNATIVES
A strategy choice
Management options to create top-level strategy with all the attention
constrain. selection strategy used is as follows:
Distributed versus centralized processing
Currently, there is a tendency changes occur from the information the decision
centralized data processing to the end-user Decentralized responsibility Centers. Distributed environment in the process, end-user disconnect the equipment,
and implementation of priority development. On the other there is a growing number of end-user to enter the world computer. They try the latest technology without considering the cost, and risk. Without expertise, the system will be in the environment
conservative.
Integrated versus dispersed databases (database system spread)
When organizations use a database system spread, the system consideration has the option of what files are included in the database and the data are entered in the file. Integrated database by the administrator maintain a database of all control data
storage, access and modification. Management decides on the appropriate level with a choice of the designer considers the system with ease control.
Surround strategy of system development
System development strategy is important because many companies have a stack (backlog) of the new system is designed and conditions system that is currently being modified. This strategy allows the system designer differences in language use of the program and run it on a computer different for a full compatibility of the system (a totally compatible system). Strategy around the environment is very important in the problem corporate takeovers, in which one company to get the company and information systems may not compatible with (different).
Options tactics
Management decide now or later, the opponent modifications, and
SDLC configuration. Election was conducted before the selection operation. Eight options on the design operational Design choices are grouped into input, processing, and output. Each group can have the following options:
a. Input
1.On-line versus off-line data entry. Off-line data entry does not have the ability to validate the good transaction immediately. Therefore, the on-line data entry still used in the recommended system configuration information.
2. Keyed versus machine-readable data entry. Machine-readable data entry can increase speed, reduce income data errors, and save costs for worker (save human costs). However require a large investment in the equipment and maintenance.
3. Centralized versus Decentralized data entry. Decentralized entry is faster but the error level high because many users who enter data. Machine-readable entry requires decentralization of income benefit speed in the process of capturing data source (point of sale).
b. Processing
4. Batch versus real-time update record. Batch processing the update rekord long, suitable for centralized data entry. Real time processing costs equipment and increase the speed of the process.
5. Sequential versus direct access to records. Sequential access is associated with batch processing. Direct access to the related real-time processing.
6. Single versus multiple-user update of records. Design a system for multiple-user more complex in security access and update the record simultaneously. Complexity occurs when the speed of the process is important and application with real-time process.
c. Ouput
7. Traditional versus turnaround documents. Traditional document is a document of how to record-keeping system done through the keyboard (key input). Turnaround documents are data collection system to be done through the engine of a document
8. Structured versus inquiry-based reports. Structured report is created in a standard format and provided the routine, while the inquiry-based reports are based on demand accordance with the format of this request. Oftentime inquiry-base report found in the environment where real-time data must be accessed quickly.
SELECTING THE PROPER SYSTEM
In this phase (SDLC), a number of alternatives that have made it necessary to
compared so that one can find only the best system.
Each alternative system that has been compared with fixed
the condition of the system at this time. Note, at this time that the system can
resumed in the form of a new replacement system. If a candidat
system does not provide the benefits of the system compared lebh
at this time, the system at this time will still be used, so that the system
replacement should really benefit and the benefit exceeds
system is now the most.
Comparison Tactics
System based on the comparison of costs and benefits relative. Cost
is the demand for the payment pengoperasi and information systems.
The advantage is the value or condition as a result of the implementation of additional
information systems. These matters include the level kesalahaan
(error rates), increasing sales (increased customer sales), and
speed response time. The advantage is difficult to be measured
as qualitative (not just a number only descriptive).
Increase customer satisfaction and reduce the resistance (end-user
resistance) is a qualitative advantage. The advantage is the opportunity
to increase (improve) the benefits the company.
There are three ways a system (A) can be more superior than the other system (B).
1. Have a lower cost than B, and both systems have same benefits.
2. Have a lower cost than B, and A will also have the advantage more than B.
3. A and B cost the same, but A has the more advantage.
Method for system Comparation
There are 4 methods used to compare two or more
information system, namely:
a. Break-even analysis (BEP)
b. Payback period
c. Discounted payback period
d. Internal rate of return (IRR).
Cost category
Basically the costs are divided into categories:
a. Hardware: Mainframe, minicomputers, microcomputers, and peripherals equipment.
b. Software: systems, utilities, and application software.
c. People: analysts, programmers, operators, data entry personnel, and so forth.
d. Supplies: paper, tapes, disks, and so forth.
e. Telecommunications: modem, local area network cabling, multiplexors, front-end processors, and so forth.
f. Physical site: air conditioning, Humidity control, security, and so forth.
Nature of costs
Comparing the cost of information systems through the life of the system, analysts
memproyeksi how the cost changes for the future. To do so,
there are three models of information systems operating costs, namely:
a. Linear.
b. Exponential.
c. Step function.
When costs occur
Cost information system can occur once or continuously.
On-time costs, development costs are related to the development
system, and recurring costs, operational costs are related to
operating system information every day. The difference between one-time
(development) and recurring (operational costs) is often out of choice
material (matter). For example, the purchase of a computer is a one-time
development system, while the rent the same computer is a recurring
operational cost. Use the following to set daftat costs:
a. One-time (development) costs.
1. Hardware purchase.
2. Software purchase.
3. Analysis, design, programming, testing and personnel hours.
4. Preparation of computer sites.
5. Initial training and orientation of users.
6. Docummentation for new system.
7. Changeover from old to new system.
8. Conversion from old to new file format.
b. Recurring (operational) costs.
1. Hardware and software lease.
2. Hardware and software maintenance contracts.
3. Day-to-day personnel cost including analysts and programmers, computer operations, data entry operators, and end-user costs.
4. Computer supplies.
5. Telecommunication costs.
6. Site computer rental or lease.
7. Ongoing training.
The information system
Some of the factors that lead qualitative performance information systems that either:
a. Reduce the error level (increased accuracy).
b. Reducing the time to fix the error.
c. Reduce the response time of interactive workstations.
d. Accelerate the provision of the report (information).
e. Improving the security system.
f. Propagate update the source record is active.
g. Increasing user satisfaction. Several factors can be measured, but not in money.
The company’s strategy
Information system can make a profit in the company kompetetif.
Increase profit at this time, however, is difficult to
estimated. The increase in profit does not occur often in sudden,
but occurred several years after the implementation of the new system.
When two alternatives to a system of similarity comparison, open-door
factors to consider strategies for the company.
There are factors the company strategy is as follows:
1. Customer satisfaction (customer satisfaction).
An information system may cause the circumspection efficient products and consumer desire. Increase customer satisfaction will no doubt increase sales. Such as increased sales, however, difficult to predict and quantitative.
2. Increase sales (increased sales).
Point of sales system (POS) of free storage tasks rekord. Management expect sales staff time devoted to business. This marketing and increase sales. The only sales will increase the difficulty to predict in the money.
3. Consumer commitment and vendors (vendor and customer commitments).
Company designing an online feedback system and allow consumers direct access to the system. Consumers are now locked (depending) on this system so that a commitment to faithful (pleased) at the company. Consumer and vendor commitment difficult to predict.
4. Information product marketing.
Often, new information system can be used by other companies. As the American Airline system provides information marketing products during 1970, the company developed a system of booking ticketing and marketing system and is also used by service other airlines, so that a product is profitable.
CONTINUING DECISION OR NOT
a. If the company decided to develop the information system, the department will do the next process, namely Design System.
b. If then the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) will be terminated.
c. Will often found problems with the system and the study and top management will usually ask for the fulfillment of the re-study system.
d. Model will describe some of the stages of the repeated and sometimes the information will make a decision before the repeat stage system of study.
e. With the alternative, the decision to repeat a previous phase or not is Go – No-Go Decision.
